Distributional effects of transport policies on inequalities in access to opportunities in Rio de Janeiro

Rafael H. M. Pereira

University of Oxford and Institute for Applied Economic Research (Ipea)

David Banister

Oxford University

Tim Schwanen

Oxford University

Nate Wessel

University of Toronto

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.2019.1523

Keywords: distributive justice, accessibility, transport policy, Rio de Janeiro, MAUP


Abstract

The evaluation of social impacts of transport policies has been attracting growing attention in recent years. Yet studies thus far have predominately focused on developed countries and overlooked whether equity assessment of transport projects is sensitive to the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP). This paper investigates how investments in public transport can reshape socio-spatial inequalities in access to opportunities, and it examines how MAUP can influence the distributional effects of transport project evaluations. The study looks at Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and the transformations carried out in the city in preparation for the 2014 World Cup and the 2016 Olympics, which involved substantial expansion in public transport infrastructure followed by cuts in service levels. The paper uses before-and-after comparison of Rio's transport network (2014-2017) and quasi-counterfactual analysis to examine how those policies affect access to schools and jobs for different income groups and whether the results are robust when the data is analyzed at different spatial scales and zoning schemes. Results show that subsequent cuts in service levels have offset the accessibility benefits of transport investments in a way that particularly penalizes the poor, and that those investments alone would still have generated larger accessibility gains for higher-income groups. These findings suggest that, contrary to Brazil’s official discourse of transport legacy, recent policies in Rio have exacerbated rather than reduced socio-spatial inequalities in access to opportunities. The study also shows that MAUP can influence the equity assessment of transport projects, suggesting that this issue should be addressed in future research.

References

Anselin, L. (2010). Thirty years of spatial econometrics. Papers in Regional Science, 89(1), 3–25. doi:10.1111/j.1435-5957.2010.00279.x

Anselin, L., Syabri, I., & Smirnov, O. (2002). Visualizing multivariate spatial correlation with dynamically linked windows. In New tools for spatial data analysis: Proceedings of the Specialist Meeting (p. 61801). Santa Barbara, CA: Center for Spatially Integrated Social Science (CSISS), University of California. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bfc5/e6683bf0d4d6ea197d95309d0545e8969e64.pdf

Apparicio, P., Abdelmajid, M., Riva, M., & Shearmur, R. (2008). Comparing alternative approaches to measuring the geographical accessibility of urban health services: Distance types and aggregation-error issues. International Journal of Health Geographics, 7, 7. doi:10.1186/1476-072X-7-7

Banister, D. (2008). The sustainable mobility paradigm. Transport Policy, 15(2), 73–80. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2007.10.005

Barbara, V. (2016, July 1). Brazil’s Olympic Catastrophe. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/03/opinion/sunday/brazils-olympic-catastrophe.html

Basta, C. (2015). From justice in planning toward planning for justice: A capability approach. Planning Theory. doi:10.1177/1473095215571399

Blanco, J., Lucas, K., Schafran, A., Verlinghieri, E., & Apaolaza, R. (2018). Contested mobilities in the Latin American context. Journal of Transport Geography, 67, 73–75. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2018.01.006

BOC. (2009). Rio de Janeiro’s candidature file to host the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games (No. 1, 2 and 3). Brazilian Olympic Committee. Retrieved from http://www.rio2016.com/en/organising-committee/transparency/documents

Boisjoly, G., & El-Geneidy, A. M. (2017). How to get there? A critical assessment of accessibility objectives and indicators in metropolitan transportation plans. Transport Policy, 55, 38–50. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2016.12.011

Brazil. (2009). Caderno de Legados Urbano e Ambiental. Rio 2016 cidade candidata. Sport Ministry. Retrieved from http://www.esporte.gov.br/arquivos/rio2016/cadernoLegadosUrbanoAmbiental.pdf

Câmara, P., & Banister, D. (1993). Spatial inequalities in the provision of public transport in Latin American cities. Transport Reviews, 13(4), 351–373. doi:10.1080/01441649308716857

Campbell, K. B., Rising, J. A., Klopp, J. M., & Mbilo, J. M. (2019). Accessibility across transport modes and residential developments in Nairobi. Journal of Transport Geography, 74, 77–90. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2018.08.002

Casas, I. (2007). Social exclusion and the disabled: An accessibility approach. Professional Geographer, 59(4), 463–477. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9272.2007.00635.x

Castro, D. G., Gaffney, C., Novaes, P. R., Rodrigues, J. M., Orlando Alves dos Santos, Jr., C. P. (Eds.). (2015). Rio de Janeiro: Os impactos da Copa do Mundo 2014 e das Olimpíadas 2016 (1st ed.). Rio de Janeiro: Letra Capital.

Central. (2016). Relatório 4 – Planejamento e execução das pesquisas: Parte 3: Diagnóstico da situação atual (p. 395). Rio de Janeiro: Companhia estadual de transportes e logística (Central), Governo do Rio de Janeiro.

Ciommo, F. D., & Shiftan, Y. (2017). Transport equity analysis. Transport Reviews, 37(2), 139–151. doi:10.1080/01441647.2017.1278647

CPCORJ. (2015). Rio 2016 Olympics: The exclusion games—mega-events and human rights violations in Rio de Janeiro dossier. Rio de Janeiro: Comitê popular Copa e Olimpíadas Rio—World Cup and Olympics Popular Committee of Rio de Janeiro. Retrieved from https://comitepo pulario.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/dossiecomiterio2015_eng1.pdf

Cuadros, A. (2016, August 1). The broken promise of the Rio Olympics. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/08/building-barra-rio-olympics-brazil/493697/

Delmelle, E. C., & Casas, I. (2012). Evaluating the spatial equity of bus rapid transit-based accessibility patterns in a developing country: The case of Cali, Colombia. Transport Policy, 20, 36–46. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2011.12.001

Efthymiou, D., & Antoniou, C. (2013). How do transport infrastructure and policies affect house prices and rents? Evidence from Athens, Greece. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 52, 1–22. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2013.04.002

El-Geneidy, A., Levinson, D., Diab, E., Boisjoly, G., Verbich, D., & Loong, C. (2016). The cost of equity: Assessing transit accessibility and social disparity using total travel cost. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 91, 302–316. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2016.07.003

Elhorst, J. P. (2010). Applied spatial econometrics: Raising the bar. Spatial Economic Analysis, 5(1), 9–28. doi:10.1080/17421770903541772

Fainstein, S. S. (2010). The just city. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Foth, N., Manaugh, K., & El-Geneidy, A. M. (2013). Towards equitable transit: Examining transit accessibility and social need in Toronto, Canada, 1996–2006. Journal of Transport Geography, 29, 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.12.008

França, R. (2016, December 11). Ônibus perdem passageiros durante a crise. O Globo. Retrieved from https://oglobo.globo.com/rio/onibus-perdem-passageiros-durante-crise-20625497

G1. (2017, February 6). Confira as novas mudanças de linhas de ônibus no Rio. Retrieved from http://g1.globo.com/rio-de-janeiro/noticia/2016/02/confira-novas-mudancas-de-linhas-de-onibus-no-rio.html

Gaffney, C. (2010). Mega-events and socio-spatial dynamics in Rio de Janeiro, 1919-2016. Journal of Latin American Geography, 9(1), 7–29. doi:10.1353/lag.0.0068

Gaffney, C. (2016). Gentrifications in pre-Olympic Rio de Janeiro. Urban Geography, 37(8), 1132–1153. doi:10.1080/02723638.2015.1096115

Geurs, K., & van Wee, B. (2004). Accessibility evaluation of land-use and transport strategies: Review and research directions. Journal of Transport Geography, 12(2), 127–140. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2003.10.005

Guimarães, A., & Leitão, L. (2017). Ex-secretário de obras de Paes é preso em desmembramento da Lava Jato no Rio. G1. Retrieved from http://g1.globo.com/rio-de-janeiro/noticia/pf-cumpre-mandados-em-mais-um-desmembramento-da-lava-jato-no-rio.ghtml

Horner, M. W., & Murray, A. T. (2004). Spatial representation and scale impacts in transit service assessment. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 31(5), 785–797. doi:10.1068/b3046

IBGE. (2016). Grade estatística 2010. Retrieved from http://mapas.ibge.gov.br/interativos/grade.html

Ipea, UNPD, & FJP. (2015). Atlas do desenvolvimento humano nas regiões metropolitanas brasileiras. Retrieved from http://www.atlasbrasil.org.br/

ITDP Brasil. (2014). Análise do fluxo de pedestres nas estações do BRT transbrasil. Rio de Janeiro: ITDP Brasil. Retrieved from http://itdpbrasil.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Pedestrian-Flow-Analysis-Transbrasil_FINAL.pdf

ITDP Brasil. (2015). Análise de Impacto do BRT TransCarioca na Mobilidade Urbana do Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro: ITDP Brasil. Retrieved from https://www.itdp.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/ITDP-Brasil_An%C3%A1lise-Impacto-BRT-TransCarioca_em-PT_vers%C3%A3o-WEB-para-site.pdf

Karner, A., & Niemeier, D. (2013). Civil rights guidance and equity analysis methods for regional transportation plans: a critical review of literature and practice. Journal of Transport Geography, 33, 126–134. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2013.09.017

Kassens-Noor, E., Gaffney, C., Messina, J., & Phillips, E. (2016). Olympic transport legacies: Rio de Janeiro’s bus rapid transit system. Journal of Planning Education and Research. doi:10.1177/0739456X16683228

Kutz, M. (2003). Handbook of transportation engineering (1st edition.). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Kwan, M.-P. (2000). Gender differences in space-time constraints. Area, 32(2), 145–156. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4762.2000.tb00125.x

Kwan, M.-P., & Weber, J. (2008). Scale and accessibility: Implications for the analysis of land use–travel interaction. Applied Geography, 28(2), 110–123. doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2007.07.002

Lago, L. C. do. (2000). Desigualdades e segregação na metrópole: O Rio de Janeiro em tempo de crise. Observatório IPPUR/UFRJ-FASE. Retrieved from http://web.observatoriodasmetropoles.net/new/images/abook_file/desigualdade_metropolerj_lucianalago.pdf

Legroux, J. (2014). From discourse to reality: Impacts of Rio’s “transportation revolution” on socio-spatial justice. In L. C. de Q. Ribeiro (Ed.), The metropolis of Rio de Janeiro: A space in transition (1st ed., pp. 343–372). Rio de Janeiro: Letra Capital.

LeSage, J. P. (2008). An introduction to spatial econometrics. Revue d’Économie Industrielle, 123, 19–44. doi:10.4000/rei.3887

Lucas, K. (2012). Transport and social exclusion: Where are we now? Transport Policy, 20, 105–113. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2012.01.013

Magalhães, L. E., & Rodrigues, R. (2017, June 6). Sistema BRT completa 5 anos sem motivos para comemorar. O Globo. Retrieved from https://oglobo.globo.com/rio/sistema-brt-completa-5-anos-sem-motivos-para-comemorar-21439782

Maia, M. L., Lucas, K., Marinho, G., Santos, E., & de Lima, J. H. (2016). Access to the Brazilian city—from the perspectives of low-income residents in Recife. Journal of Transport Geography, 55, 132–141. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2016.01.001

Manaugh, K., Badami, M. G., & El-Geneidy, A. M. (2015). Integrating social equity into urban transportation planning: A critical evaluation of equity objectives and measures in transportation plans in North America. Transport Policy, 37, 167–176. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2014.09.013

Martens, K. (2016). Transport justice: Designing fair transportation systems [electronic resource]. London: Routledge.

Martens, K., Golub, A., & Robinson, G. (2012). A justice-theoretic approach to the distribution of transportation benefits: Implications for transportation planning practice in the United States. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 46(4), 684–695. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2012.01.004

McKay, S., Murray, M., & Macintyre, S. (2012). Justice as fairness in planning policy-making. International Planning Studies, 17(2), 147–162. doi:10.1080/13563475.2012.672798

Mitra, S. K., & Saphores, J.-D. M. (2016). The value of transportation accessibility in a least developed country city – the case of Rajshahi City, Bangladesh. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 89, 184–200. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2016.05.002

Motte-Baumvol, B., Aguilera, A., Bonin, O., & Nassi, C. D. (2016). Commuting patterns in the metropolitan region of Rio de Janeiro. What differences between formal and informal jobs? Journal of Transport Geography, 51, 59–69. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2015.10.019

Mulley, C., Ma, L., Clifton, G., Yen, B., & Burke, M. (2016). Residential property value impacts of proximity to transport infrastructure: An investigation of bus rapid transit and heavy rail networks in Brisbane, Australia. Journal of Transport Geography, 54, 41–52. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2016.05.010

Neutens, T., Schwanen, T., Witlox, F., & Maeyer, P. D. (2010). Equity of urban service delivery: A comparison of different accessibility measures. Environment and Planning A, 42(7), 1613–1635. doi:10.1068/a4230

Omer, I. (2006). Evaluating accessibility using house-level data: A spatial equity perspective. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 30(3), 254–274. doi:10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2005.06.004

Ortega, E., López, E., & Monzón, A. (2012). Territorial cohesion impacts of high-speed rail at different planning levels. Journal of Transport Geography, 24, 130–141. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2011.10.008

Páez, A., & Scott, D. M. (2005). Spatial statistics for urban analysis: A review of techniques with examples. GeoJournal, 61(1), 53–67. doi:10.1007/s10708-005-0877-5

Papa, E., Silva, C., te Brömmelstroet, M., & Hull, A. (2015). Accessibility instruments for planning practice: A review of European experiences. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 9(3), 57–75. Retrieved from https://www.jtlu.org/index.php/jtlu/article/view/585

Pereira, R. H. M. (2019). Future accessibility impacts of transport policy scenarios: Equity and sensitivity to travel time thresholds for Bus Rapid Transit expansion in Rio de Janeiro. Journal of Transport Geography, 74, 321–332. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2018.12.005

Pereira, R. H. M., & Schwanen, T. (2013). Commute time in Brazil (1992-2009): Differences between metropolitan areas, by income levels and gender (Texto para Discussão No. 1813a). Brasilia, Brazil: Institute for Applied Economic Research – Ipea. Retrieved from http://repositorio.ipea.gov.br/handle/11058/964

Pereira, R. H. M., Schwanen, T., & Banister, D. (2017). Distributive justice and equity in transportation. Transport Reviews, 37(2), 170–191. doi:10.1080/01441647.2016.1257660

Préteceille, E., & Cardoso, A. (2008). Río de Janeiro y Sao Paulo: ¿Ciudades duales? Comparación con Paris. Ciudad y Territorio: Estudios Territoriales, 158, 617–640.

Rawls, J. (1999). A theory of justice (revised edition.). Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Rawls, J. (2001). Justice as fairness: A restatement. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Ribeiro, L. C. de Q. (Ed.). (2014). The Metropolis of Rio de Janeiro: A space in transition (1st ed.). Rio de Janeiro: Letra Capital.

Ribeiro, L. C. de Q., Rodrigues, J. M., & Corrêa, F. S. (2010). Segregação residencial e emprego nos grandes espaços urbanos brasileiros. Cadernos Metrópole, 12(23), 15–41. Retrieved from http://revistas.pucsp.br/index.php/metropole/article/view/5921

Rio de Janeiro. (2008). Plano de legado urbano e ambiental: Olimpíadas Rio 2016. Rio de Janeiro: Comitê Especial de Legado Urbano - Secretaria Municipal de Urbanismo. Retrieved from http://www.rio.rj.gov.br/web/smu/exibeconteudo?article-id=138922

Rio de Janeiro. (2015). Explaining Rio de Janeiro habitational policy. Rio de Janeiro: City Hall of Rio de Janeiro. Retrieved from https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1x0_cNhKxbDb094M1hraGVNekU/view

Rodrigues, R. (2017, June 28). Metrô faz oferta promocional após queda de 14.5% nas viagens - Jornal O Globo. Retrieved from https://oglobo.globo.com/rio/metro-faz-oferta-promocional-apos-queda-de-145-nas-viagens-21527565

Ryan, J., Wretstrand, A., & Schmidt, S. M. (2015). Exploring public transport as an element of older persons’ mobility: A capability approach perspective. Journal of Transport Geography, 48, 105–114. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2015.08.016

Sánchez, F., & Broudehoux, A.-M. (2013). Mega-events and urban regeneration in Rio de Janeiro: Planning in a state of emergency. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 5(2), 132–153. doi:10.1080/19463138.2013.839450

Sandy, M. (2016, March 24). The Rio Olympics could be the next victim of Brazil’s corruption scandal. Time. Retrieved from http://time.com/4271376/brazil-corruption-scandal-olympics/

Stępniak, M., & Jacobs-Crisioni, C. (2017). Reducing the uncertainty induced by spatial aggregation in accessibility and spatial interaction applications. Journal of Transport Geography, 61, 17–29. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.04.001

Tan, P. Y., & Samsudin, R. (2017). Effects of spatial scale on assessment of spatial equity of urban park provision. Landscape and Urban Planning, 158, 139–154. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.11.001

UN HABITAT. (2013). Planning and design for sustainable urban mobility: Global report on human settlements 2013. London: Routledge, UN HABITAT. Retrieved from http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=3503

UN-HABITAT. (2010). Cities for all: Bridging the urban divide. In State of the world’s cities 2010/2011 (p. 244). London: Routledge, UN-HABITAT. Retrieved from http://unhabitat.org/books/state-of-the-worlds-cities-20102011-cities-for-all-bridging-the-urban-divide/

van Wee, B., & Geurs, K. (2011). Discussing equity and social exclusion in accessibility evaluations. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research, 11(4), 350–367. Retrieved from http://www.ejtir.tbm.tudelft.nl/issues/2011_04/abstracts/2011_04_01.asp

van Wee, B., & Roeser, S. (2013). Ethical theories and the cost–benefit analysis-based ex ante evaluation of transport policies and plans. Transport Reviews, 33(6), 743–760. doi:10.1080/01441647.2013.854281

Vasconcellos, E. A. de. (2001). Urban transport, environment, and equity: The case for developing countries. London, UK: Routledge, Earthscan.

Vermeiren, K., Verachtert, E., Kasaija, P., Loopmans, M., Poesen, J., Van Rompaey, A. (2015). Who could benefit from a bus rapid transit system in cities from developing countries? A case study from Kampala, Uganda. Journal of Transport Geography, 47, 13–22. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2015.07.006

Watts, J. (2015, June 3). Forced evictions in Rio favela for 2016 Olympics trigger violent clashes. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/03/forced-evictions-vila-autodromo-rio-olympics-protests

Wessel, N., Allen, J., & Farber, S. (2017). Constructing a routable retrospective transit timetable from a real-time vehicle location feed and GTFS. Journal of Transport Geography, 62, 92–97. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.04.012

Xu, P., Huang, H., Dong, N., & Abdel-Aty, M. (2014). Sensitivity analysis in the context of regional safety modeling: Identifying and assessing the modifiable areal unit problem. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 70, 110–120. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2014.02.012