Bundled parking and vehicle ownership: Evidence from the American Housing Survey
Michael Manville
Assistant Professor, Luskin School of Public Affairs, University of California, Los Angeles
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.2016.730
Keywords: Transport, Land Use, Parking, Density, Vehicle Ownership
Abstract
This article estimates the effect of bundled residential parking—parking whose price is included in the rent or purchase price of housing—on household vehicle ownership. Using data from the American Housing Survey, I show that the odds of households with bundled parking being vehicle-free are 50–75 percent lower than the odds of households without bundled parking, while households in dense center cities near transit are twice as likely to be without vehicles if they lack bundled parking. I also find substantial, though less stable, evidence that bundled parking encourages driving among commuters who have vehicles. These results are robust to a wide variety of demographic and land-use controls and to controls for residential self-selection. Examining self-selection shows that housing without bundled parking is sufficiently scarce and geographically concentrated that people who search for it may not find it. Four metropolitan areas, which hold 11 percent of U.S. housing units, hold more than 40 percent of its housing without bundled parking. Overall, the results suggest that when cities require parking with residential development, they increase vehicle ownership and use.References
Bento, A., M. Cropper, M. Moborak, and K. Vinha. 2005. The impact of urban spatial structure on travel demand in the United States. Review of Economics and Statistics 87(3): 466–478.
Boarnet, M. 2011. A broader context for land use and travel behavior. Journal of the American Planning Association 77(3): 197–213.
Boarnet, M., and R. Crane. 2001. Travel by Design. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Brueckner, J., and A. Largey. 2008. Social interaction and urban sprawl. Journal of Urban Economics 64(1): 18–34.
Cervero, R., and R. Ewing. 2010. Travel and the built environment: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Planning Association 76(3): 265–94.
Cao, X., P. Mokhtarian, and S. Handy. 2007. Cross-sectional and quasi-panel explorations of the connection between the built environment and auto ownership. Transportation Research A 39: 830–857.
Cao, X., and D. Chatman. 2012. How will land use policies affect travel? Transportation Research Board 91st Annual Meeting, January 22–26, Washington, DC.
Chester, M., A. Horvath, and S. Madanat. 2010. Parking infrastructure: Energy, emissions, and automobile life-cycle environmental accounting. Environmental Research Letters 5(7): PAGES. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/5/3/034001.
Chatman, D. 2009. Residential choice, the bult environment and nonwork travel: Evidence using new data and methods. Environment and Planning A 41: 1072–1089.
Chatman, D. 2010. Deconstructing development density: Quality, quantity and price effects on household travel. Transportation Research A, 2008 42(7): 1009–1031.
Chatman, D. 2013. Does TOD need the T? Journal of the American Planning Association 79(1): 17–31.
Chatman, D. 2014. Explaining the immigrant effect on auto use. Transportation 41: 441–4661.
Chu, Yu-Lian. 2002. Automobile ownership analysis using ordered probit models. Transportation
Research Record. 1805: 60–67.
Davis, A., B. Pijanowski, K. Robinson, and B. Engel. 2010. The environmental and economic costs of sprawling parking lots in the United States. Land Use Policy 27(2): 255–261.
Fischel, W. 2002. The Homevoter Hypothesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Giuiliano, G. 2003. Travel, location and race/ethnicity. Transportation Research 37(4): 351–372.
Curry, J. 2004. The Invisible Safety Net. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Glaeser, E., and E. Luttmer. 2003. The misallocation of housing under rent control. American Economic Review 93(4): 1027–1046.
Guo, Z. 2013. Does residential parking supply affect household car ownership? A case of New York City. Journal of Transport Geography 26: 18–28.
Guo, Z. 2013 Residential street parking and vehicle ownership. Journal of the American Planning Association 79(1): 32–48.
Handy, S. 2005. Smart growth and the transportation-land use connection: What does the research tell us? International Regional Science Review 28(2): 1–22.
Jacob, B. 2004. Public housing, housing vouchers, and student achievement. American Economic Review 94(1): 233–258.
Jakle, J., and K. Sculle. 2004. Lots of Parking: Land Use in a Car Culture. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
Manville, M. 2013. Parking requirements and housing development: Regulation and reform in Los Angeles. Journal of the American Planning Association 79(1): 49–63.
Manville, M., A. Beata, and D. Shoup. 2013. Turning housing into driving: Parking requirements and density in Los Angeles and New York. Housing Policy Debate 23(2): 350–375.
Manville, M., and D. Shoup. 2005. People, parking and cities. Journal of Urban Planning and Development 131(4): 233–253.
McCahill, C., and N. Garrick. 2010. Influence of parking policy on built environment and travel behavior in two New England cities, 1960–2007. Transportation Research Record 2187: 123–130.
Murray, M. 2006. Avoiding invalid instruments and coping with weak instruments. Journal of Economic Perspectives 20(4): 111–132.
Papke, L. E., and J. M. Wooldridge. 1996. Econometric methods for fractional response variables with an application to 401(k) plan participation rates. Journal of Applied Econometrics 11: 619–632.
Ross, C. 2013. City wants a cutback on new parking. Boston Globe. July 5.
Salon, D. 2009. Neighborhoods, cars, and commuting in New York City. Transportation Research Part A 43: 180–196.
Schachter, J., R. Franklin, and M. Perry. 2003. Migration and geographic mobility in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan America, 1995–2000. Washington, DC: US Census Bureau.
Shoup, D. C. 2005. The high cost of free parking. Chicago: Planners Press, American Planning Association.
Taylor, P., R. Morin, D. Cohn, and W. Wang. 2008. Who moves? Who stays put? Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
Texas Transportation Institute. 2011. Urban mobility study. http://mobility.tamu.edu/ums/.
US Census Bureau. 2002. New York City Housing and Vacancy Survey. http://www.census.gov/housing/nychvs/data/2002/nychvs02.html.
van Wee, B. 2009. Self-selection: A key to a better understanding of location choices, travel behavior and transport externalities? Transport Reviews 29(3): 279–292.
Watson, G. 2007. Weighting and the American Housing Survey. Cityscape 9(2): 193–200.
Weinberger, R., M. Seaman, and C. Johnson. 2009. Residential off-street parking impacts on car ownership, vehicle miles traveled, and related carbon emissions: New York City case study. Transportation Research Record 2118: 24–30.
Weinberger, R. 2012. Death by a thousand curb cuts. Transport Policy 20: 93–102.
Zegras, C. 2010. The built environment and vehicle ownership and use: Evidence from Santiago de Chile. Urban Studies 47(8): 1793–1817.
